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Paper Abstract: Communication difficulties in young children. Disorders of expressive phonology (the speech-sound system). Identifies key aspects of assessment of clinical intervention targeting children with phonological deficits. Identification of children with speech disorders. Causes. Role of trained speech-language pathologists. Assessment tools. Discusses a case study of pre-school children. Paper Introduction: Phonology: Assessment and Intervention Disorders of expressive phonology (i.e., disorders of the speech-sound system) have been identified by Lewis, Freebairn, and Taylor (2000) as the most prevalent communication difficulty observed in young children. An estimated 3.8 percent of all children continue to present with speech delay at six years of age, but children with expressive phonology disorders tend to constitute a heterogeneous group. While in many cases, speech-sound or phonological disorders tend to be resolved by school age, certain children continue to experience phonological deficits due to conditions such as cleft palate (Chapman, Hardin-Jones, Schulte, & Halter, 2001). This relatively brief study will identify key aspects of assessment and clinical intervention targeting children with phonological deficits. It Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Finally, treatment appears to be most effective when it isdesigned to address the child's individual ability to focus consciously onthe sound structure of language. Follow-up ofchildren with early expressive phonology disorders. While in many cases, speech-sound or phonological disorders tend to be resolved by school age, certainchildren continue to experience phonological deficits due to conditionssuch as cleft palate (Chapman, Hardin-Jones, Schulte, & Halter, 2 1).This relatively brief study will identify key aspects of assessment andclinical intervention targeting children with phonological deficits. Once an assessment of the specific phonological disorder has beenconducted, phonological treatment is developed. Children who receivetreatments for phonemes known to develop early and that are associated withgreater productive phonological knowledge showed greater progress overalltoward the acquisition of target sounds. The subjects in the LL group whoreceived treatment for late developing phonemes associated with little oron productive phonological knowledge demonstrated significantly lessprogress. According to Allor, Fuchs, and Mathes (2 1), phonemic awareness andlexical retrieval are two phonological processing variables that appear tobe important in predicting future reading performance. Similarly, the acquisition of early developing phonemesis seen as a necessary precondition for the acquisition of later developingphonemes. (2 ). Journal of Speech, Language& Hearing Research, 43(3), 595-615. This sort ofassessment clearly moves from a comparison of the consonant rendition andphoneme production of the individual child to the productions of childrenknown to have proceeded on a traditional or normal developmental path(Couples, & Iacono, 2 ). References Allor, J.H., Fuchs, D., & Mathes, P.G. Often, young children assessed by means of suchmeasures as the Test of Phonological Awareness can be identified as eitherhaving or at risk for the development of phonological deficits. Given that the mostcommon type of learning disability is a reading disability, earlyassessment of students' skills in these phonological processing tasksappears to be indicated. As McLeod, et al (2 1)have commented, most assessments are conducted against a set of generaltrends indicative of how children acquire singleton phonemes and consonantclusters at specific ages or within certain age ranges. Often, the presence of a phonologicaldeficit is noted by a parent or by a preschool teacher. McLeod, S., Van Doorn, J., & Reed, V.A. (2 1). Often, according to McLeod, et al(2 1), such assessments focus on the acquisition of consonant clusters viaindependent analyses in which children's consonant clusters are describedwithout reference to adult targets. Onceassessment is complete, interventions can then be implemented. All 48 children performed within normal limits on astandardized test of receptive language ability while 43 children performedwithin normal limits on a standardized test of expressive language abilityand 5 children demonstrated expressive syntax skills that were below normallimits. Vocal development of nine-month-old babies with cleft palate. In assessment and intervention, the carefuldetermination of desirable outcomes is also clearly a necessity (Allor, etal, 2 1). In the study, Rvachew and Nowak (2 1) divided subjects into twogroups. Assessing phonological development is often undertaken by trainedspeech-language pathologists, whose clinical decision-making centers uponassessment, diagnosis of impairment, prediction of normalization, selectionof intervention targets, ordering of these targets, training duringintervention, identification of appropriate intervention outcomes, and thetiming of discharge from intervention. Rvachew and Nowak (2 1)contend that interventions focus on improvement in production accuracy thatspecifically targets a phoneme that is likely to have the most impact onintelligibility and the most likely to show early improvement. The remaining children received treatment for thephonemes for which they had the least productive phonological knowledge andwhich are relatively late developing. Thechildren did not have global delays in language skills, but had specificareas of difficulty. Chapman, K.L., Hardin-Jones, M., Schulte, J., & Halter, K.A. Theseresearchers believe that any intervention should generate rapid improvementto ensure that the child does not feel frustrated or discouraged by thetherapy process. (2 1). For many linguists, psychologists, and speech-language pathologists,the search for general and generalizable trends in the development ofchildren's speech has been an important endeavor. Assessment ofphonological skills in children who do not have a presenting birth defectthat immediately signals the likelihood of such deficits is oftenundertaken at the recommendation of a pediatrician, a parental or othercaretaker, or a teacher (McLeod, Van Doorn, & Reed, 2 1). (2 1). Phonology: Assessment and Intervention Disorders of expressive phonology (i.e., disorders of the speech-sound system) have been identified by Lewis, Freebairn, and Taylor (2 )as the most prevalent communication difficulty observed in young children.An estimated 3.8 percent of all children continue to present with speechdelay at six years of age, but children with expressive phonology disorderstend to constitute a heterogeneous group. Phonological awareness and oralreading skill in children with Down syndrome. Consonant clusterdevelopment in two-year-olds: General trends and individual difference.Journal of Speech, Language & Hearing Research, 44(5), 1144-1172. Identification of phonological deficits or the potential for suchdeficits can occur at birth, as in the case of children with cleft lips orpalates (Chapman, et al, 2 1) or in the early childhood and/or preschoolenvironment (Lewis, et al, 2 ). This longitudinal study by Rvachew and Nowak (2 1) offeredindividualized targets employing specific consonants of a knowledge typethat reflected the child's production accuracy. Lewis, B.A., Freebairn, L.A., & Taylor, H.G. One group was referred to as the ME (most knowledge, earliestdeveloping) group. The purpose of the study was to investigate the relative effectivenessof two different sets of target-selection criteria for phoneme mastery whenthe intervention was implemented in the context of treatment procedures ata clinical speech/language facility. Treatment targets were developed foreach of the subjects on the basis of the child's phonological knowledge foreach potential target as well as the expected age of mastery for eachtarget. This group was characterized as theLL group (least knowledge, latest developing). Itwill include reference to a case study of children with moderate or severedelays in phonological abilities who have received treatment for fourphonemes. (2 ). Cupples, L., & Iacono, T. Journal of LearningDisabilities, 33(5), 433-452. The researchers used a sample of 48 preschool-aged children with moderately or severely delayed phonological skills. The case study to be discussed in this report was conducted byRvachew and Nowak (2 1). The case study by Rvachew and Nowak (2 1) supports the notion thattargeted interventions on early developing phonemes is instrumental infostering skill acquisition and improving overall phonological production.For clinicians, this in turn suggests that a carefully targeted assessmentof specific phonological deficits should be conducted and thatinterventions must also be targeted toward earlier rather than laterdeveloping phonemes. Journal ofSpeech, Language & Hearing Research, 44(6), 1268-1284. Do students with andwithout lexical retrieval weaknesses respond differently to instruction?Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34(3), 264-28 . 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