Intellectuals in the Early Ching Dynasty   Term Paper ID:27196 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Examines the role of the intellectual in China's Ching Dynasty. Focuses on whether the intellectual class supported the traditional or agitated for change.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Examines the role of the intellectual in China's Ching Dynasty. Focuses on whether the intellectual class supported the traditional or agitated for change. Paper Introduction: Fairbank and Reischauer (1989) discuss the early Ching dynasty and make the comment that contemporary impressions of the culture of the time in China "is of a rich culture so firmly imbedded in its inherited tradition that it is more critical than creative and, in some cases, even repetitive and decadent" (p. 237). This raises interesting questions about the role of the intellectual in such a society, centering on whether the intellectual class supports the traditional or agitates for change and how the specific intellectual response is viewed by the rest of society. This was a period of dynastic decline, but even that was in some fashion a preparation for the next surge forward even if the people of the time could not see what form that surge would take. There is a parallel here between the declining Ching dynasty and our own era, as we are beset by concerns about the Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. The new schools also faced competition from Christianmissionary schools. Cotterell and Morgan (1975) state: "Industrialexpansion in the nineteenth century was closely linked with the impact ofthe Europeans" (p. In particular, this meant there was no interest inthe thought or attitudes of other intellectuals in other countries,particularly those in the West, so when Western ideas invaded China, theintellectuals were not equipped to handle it. There was little impetus for the elite to provideeducation to any wider audience, for that would only undercut its own elitestatus. 392). 3). The leadership wasvery effective at segregating the Western influence even as it benefitedfrom the economic changes brought from the West, and during this period theintellectual class was much more interested in advancing through thetraditional system than in examining foreign influences or for that matterexamining any of the tenets of its own society. 373). The system itselfwas modeled on the Japanese (Fairbank and Reischauer: p. Thus, while the form of activity and thought for the intellectualclass changed around the turn of the century, their effectiveness asthinkers and as influences on China at large changed much more slowly.They had held positions of power without doing much more than sustainingthe thinking of the past, and now they found themselves in a system thatwas not working well and in which they were more and more custodians ofWestern thought rather than traditional Chinese thought. This raises interesting questions aboutthe role of the intellectual in such a society, centering on whether theintellectual class supports the traditional or agitates for change and howthe specific intellectual response is viewed by the rest of society. Still, a new system was developed, one that was a compromise toeffect the changes wanted while assuaging the old guard. The intellectuals of the time were conservatives,dedicated to extolling the status quo and to avoiding change. This was the general aim of theeducational program at that time--to train and select officials in a moreeffective manner: "Its aim was not mass education of the Chinese people,nor was it liberal education of the Chinese individual" (p. The role of the intellectual as conservative and as upholder of thetraditional is not surprising given the fact that the intellectuals of theera were part of the ruling elite. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1981.Latourette, Kenneth Scott, The Chinese: Their History and Culture. There is a parallel here betweenthe declining Ching dynasty and our own era, as we are beset by concernsabout the economy and about declining American power. Theold leadership was failing, and a new system was instituted to assure thatleaders were adequately trained. We may think of theintellectual class as having a responsibility to examine its own societyand to serve as a source of criticism leading to change, but that was notthe essential task of the intellectual class in China. It was necessary to train thousands of teachers for these newschools, and there were costs in terms not only of training but ofequipping the facilities. Fairbank andReischauer discuss the changes made in the educational system. The Chingdynasty had been in collapse for some time, and the efforts of none of thetraditional realms were managing to support the dying system or even giveit a new sense of life. It was instead aconservative class that benefited from the existing system and so preservedit. Since most intellectuals until the twentieth centurywere Confucian literati who had access to official positions, the majorityupheld the status quo" (p. The intellectuals of our time may argue over themeaning of the change and the possibility of recovery, but that is thefunction they serve--to analyze and generate discussion, if not finalanswers. Goldman (1981) notes that historically in China, "the participationof intellectuals in the political system has ranged from total submissionto total withdrawal. 3 3). After 1895, this Western invasion increased and became more a part ofthe scene in China, with the establishment of new schools that combinedboth Western and Chinese subjects. This was almost necessary, since the literati were members ofthe ruling elite and were thus, even as critics, close to the centers ofpower. This let in new blood whileretaining the essential form of the old system, at least in the final step. Rather, educationwas a function of rank. This shift was particularly interesting for the manner in which itabruptly allowed in a wide variety of Western ideas and subjects aftercenturies of contact during which the leadership had kept Westerninfluences segregated. He finds that the mental life of China was thenin greater flux than at any other time since the era of the Chou. After 1895, the rush of change overwhelmed the intellectuals of thepast and in time would produce a new intellectual class with a differentorientation, arguably a class derived from a broader segment of societythan had ever been true before. Fairbankand Reischauer state that the main problem faced at the time was how toappease the contemporary generation of scholar-officials in office and theclassically trained aspirants for office, since all had a vested interestin the classical examination system. The intellectual class wasill-prepared for such a change in 1895, and the intellectual class thatdeveloped was less committed to Chinese traditions or to Chineseinstitutions, often having studied abroad or at least in a mixed Chineseand Western system. 373-374). Theconsequence was that students who had been made to feel a need forincreased education sought it in Japan or the West, frustrated with thefailures of the system in their own country. The period of the Late Ching dynasty was a period of change, asFairbank and Reischauer (1989) and Latourette (1968) note. China'sintellectual life up to 1895 was shaped almost entirely by the civilservice examination, further evidence that intellectuals were seekinggovernment posts and little else. 393). As thedynasty decayed, it became apparent that new leadership was needed. There was a shift in the way of life for theintellectual class, with less emphasis on examinations and its accompanyingand immediate advancement, and more on day-to-day studies and living. 237). In a sense, the intellectuals were a different sort of priestlyclass possessing secret knowledge and dedicated to keeping that knowledgesecret to keep themselves in their higher position. The literati woulddefend the existing order, much as the priestly class defended the existingsocial, political, and religious order, because they were part of it,benefited from it, and came to see themselves as guardians of all that wasright and proper. Obviously, though, this revolution was notcontrolled as the leadership would have liked. The system produced people who thought alike and behaved alike andwho had little time to develop on their own, as Latourette notes: "Successin it demanded, however, so exclusive a devotion to Chinese classicalstudies and to the acquisition of skill in writing in a highly artificialliterary style that few of those passing through it had leisure, andscarcely more of its products had interest for venturing into other fieldsof learning" (p. Fairbank and Reischauer (1989) discuss the early Ching dynasty andmake the comment that contemporary impressions of the culture of the timein China "is of a rich culture so firmly imbedded in its inheritedtradition that it is more critical than creative and, in some cases, evenrepetitive and decadent" (p. The old civil service examinations wereabolished in 19 5, and this ended the structure that had molded Chinesethought for so long. These examinations led to power andsocial recognition, and all formal education would be determined by theirrequirements. Thiswas a period of dynastic decline, but even that was in some fashion apreparation for the next surge forward even if the people of the time couldnot see what form that surge would take. Protestant missions opened a number of intermediate and high schools andcolleges: "These institutions were setting a revolutionary example byfostering Christianity, individualism, education of women, and Western waysgenerally, all under the protection of extraterritoriality" (Fairbank andReischauer: p. Some of the literati could wear two hatsand be part of the government and critics of the government at one and thesame time. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989.Goldman, Merle, China's Intellectuals: Advise and Dissent. and Edwin O. Schools came and went during this period. The system naturally produced elites because it was gearedto do so, the incentives were for admission into the elite class, and thesystem was maintained by existing elites for the replenishment of theirnumber. What role did the intellectuals play in the declining Chingdynasty and after? Japan wasalso the destination of choice for many Chinese students who found theirown system was not working well enough, and thus China was losing controlover its developing intellectual class. The various authors on China of the period note that education wasrevolutionized, and so it was. Again, this shows how theintellectual elite protected its own interests and jealously guarded itssecret knowledge. Latourette (1968) states that between 1894 and 1945, great changestook place in government, the economy, religious life, and education,literature, and language. New York: Praeger, 1975.Fairbank, John K. Only a few years agothere was a sense of prosperity and a belief that it would last forever;today, that feeling is gone and we cannot see what the future will bring orwhen it will arrive. Latourette also sees thesystem itself as producing a difficult position, with students worn down bythe discipline and demanding a voice in the institution and credit forcourses regardless of their own competence and with teachers fearful oflosing their positions and capitulating (pp. Their criticisms ofthe government would be delivered in that same spirit. During the last decade of the dynasty, however,massive changes were made leading to new beginnings. Reischauer, China: Tradition & Transformation. 253). The new intellectual class would become part of theeffort to change, an effort that Latourette notes was massive anddifficult. ReferencesCotterell, Arthur and David Morgan, China's Civilization. New York: The Macmillan Compnay, 1968.----------------------- 1 This indicates one of the major influences that wasbecoming more and more a part of China, and that was the Western influence. Yet, that impact did not make its way to theintellectual class until the twentieth century and did not have a majorimpact outside the economic realm until then as well. The system did not work as planned because it was cheaper to take thetraditional route to office than to take the new route of years ofschooling. A hierarchy ofschools was created at all the territorial levels of government parallel toand feeding into the old examination system. Education at the time was not foreveryone or even for a large segment of the population. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.