AFRICAN-AMER. CULTURE, 1850-1990.   Term Paper ID:25523 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Slavery, emancipation, Reconstruction, employment, economics, politics, legal status, migration, leaders, education, class.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Slavery, emancipation, Reconstruction, employment, economics, politics, legal status, migration, leaders, education, class. Paper Introduction: Slavery was a defining event in the history of African-Americans, an institution, which has left its legacy on successive generations. Most slaves lived under brutal and inhumane conditions. Besides being denied their humanity and treated as property, society often stripped the slave of his or her culture and heritage. After slavery ended, African-Americans faced both subtle and open discrimination in housing, education, and employment. Despite these obstacles, they have made monumental contributions to American culture. A determined spirit to survive and succeed is at the foundation of African-American culture today. An examination of African-American culture from 1850-1990 begins with blacks still in slavery. Although the slave trade was outlawed in 1807, slavery itself existed until the 1860s, Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. The need to provide trainedyoung people to serve the black community forced educators to offerprograms similar to those white students received. Color-conscious policiessuch as Jim Crow laws and the Supreme Court's decision in Plessy had aprofound impact on generations of African-Americans: "a racially conscioussociety has made color seem an important part of the individual's veryessence . Because of racialstereotyping, much of society focuses on the black lower class: "One of themore damaging factors affecting the status of all Blacks is that the lower-class black man serves as the stereotype for those who want to maintain theboundaries between the races" (Kitano 142). In hisdecision on the case, Justice Henry Billings Brown destroyed the last hopeof African-Americans for protection under the Fourteenth Amendment byinsisting that blacks had not lost equal protection under the law if theywere provided with separate but equal facilities. . The black middle class is the growing, stable core of African-American professionals, civil service workers, and business owners. Ferguson: "The following yearthe Court ordered state and local governments to proceed 'with alldeliberate speed' to integrate their schools" (Hoobler 99). Tenant farmers, unlike sharecroppers, provided theirwon animals and farm equipment. And also for the first time, Southern black men wereelected to responsible jobs in government albeit many were kept from takingtheir seats. Although emancipation from slavery occurred more than one hundredyears ago, African-Americans still deal with the issue of coming to termswith slavery's legacy. A public school system was established duringReconstruction, as well as new roads, bridges, and railroads built. However, conditions in the South, where the vastmajority of colonial African-Americans lived, were more severe than inother regions. Blacks and Social Justice. One reason may be the tendency ofblacks to favor spending on consumer items and lifestyle enhancements:"They are concerned about respectability and want to maintain certainstandards of living, often without adequate economic means" (Kitano 14 ). African-Americans realized that their only hope of betterment wasthrough education. For most African-Americans, life was no easier in their new homes, however, because asignificant percentage of the migrants were destitute. Slavery was a defining event in the history of African-Americans, aninstitution, which has left its legacy on successive generations. Many blacks who remained in the South worked as sharecroppers. About two-thirds of the black community can be classified as lower-class, although several distinctions exist within this group. African-Americans moved closer to equality with whites as many oldrestrictions were removed, but some whites still wanted to keep blacks assecond-class citizens. As the exodus of blacks from the South continued because ofrepressive Jim Crow laws, Northern whites began to react with hostility.Violence against blacks increased to the point where a significant numberwere lynched. Lexington: University of Kentucky,1986. As one black Senator pleaded his case, "Friends I have beentold that if I dared utter such Sentiments as these in public that Icertainly would be kept out of the Senate . Eyewitness: The Negro in American History. Masters also usedincentives such as holidays or extra food to induce slaves to obey them.Slavery took many forms. Cited in Bernard Boxill, Blacks and Social Loren Katz, Eyewitness: The Negro in American History. 28.Pimchback, P. Besides being deniedtheir humanity and treated as property, society often stripped the slave ofhis or her culture and heritage. Citieswere redeveloped, and there were opportunities for new industries and jobs. Both whites and blacks sharecropped in the South, but conditionsfor blacks were much more severe: "the Negro sharecropper had even lesschance than the white, because he had to face white sheriffs, judges, andjuries" (Katz 316). There was always aquestion, however, about whether the black and white educational programswere "separate but equal." By the 193 s, findings by numerous studiesrevealed that separate educational systems were anything but equal. A determined spirit to survive andsucceed is at the foundation of African-American culture today. A former slave recalls a beating byan overseer, "With a steady hand and practiced eye he would raise theinstrument of torture . Granted, blacks asa group tend to have lower incomes than their white peers. This lack of money explains the step fromslavery to sharecropping. B. Mostslaves lived under brutal and inhumane conditions. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. Readers are left with the impression that slaves were passivevictims, and that a significant number were even satisfied with theirlives. "Blues Falling Down Like Hail: The Ordeal of Black Freedom." Race and Slavery in America, Ed. In addition, these slavecodes also made it illegal for slaves to gather in large groups, carryweapons, marry whites, protect their spouses, or defend themselves againstwhites. . Because sharecroppers had to be provided with so many of thefamily needs, they received smaller shares of the crops than tenantfarmers. This group consists mostly ofmales with relatively good-paying industrial jobs. Besides life on large plantations, some slaveslived in towns, while others lived on small family farms. Many African-Americans welcomed the Brown decision as an importantturning point, signaling the end to racial isolation and the guarantee ofequal opportunity. Race riots broke out in several cities as the hostility grew. W.E.B.DuBois spoke out against Washington's teachings, claiming that they wereindirectly responsible for relegating blacks to second-class citizenship.DuBois, who graduated from Harvard, strongly believed that talented blacksshould receive an intelligent education. This group includes both those who havebenefitted from inherited wealth and those whose gains have been basedsolely on personal initiative. By the early part of the twentieth century, nearly every blackcommunity had some kind of segregated school. In 19 5, a group of black men met in Niagara Falls, near Canadato take action against white injustices. 362-363. Withcomplete white control, the Reconstruction period came to an end. These areunskilled laborers such as janitors, airport baggage handlers, and drivers. In Brown the Court ruled that segregation of theraces in public education was unconstitutional, reversing its decision onthe separate but equal doctrine of Plessy v. To survive, thousands left the South to seekjobs in other parts of the country. Folk tales and true tales of our strugglesand perseverance provide courage, perspective, and insight for generationsof children to continue carrying the proverbial torch" (Evelyn 27).Unfortunately, historical accounts of slavery, particularly in schooltextbooks, often marginalize its harsh conditions and the suffering itcaused. New York: Pitman, 1967. By the late 19th century, many black people in the South were facingunemployment and starvation. Works CitedBoxill, Bernard. In1883, the Court declared the Civil Rights Act of 1875, that offered blacksprotection against segregation in public places, unconstitutional.Individual Southern states quickly followed suit by passing laws thatseparated blacks from whites in different situations, called "Jim Crow"laws. As sharecroppers, blacks had to depend on creditfor everything. Washington and W.E.B.DuBois, characterized the divergent philosophies of this era. The majority of lowerincome blacks belong to the second group, the working poor. The watershed case onschool segregation decided by the Supreme Court was Brown v. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1992.Evelyn, Jamilah. A significantdifference is that members of the black middle class do not enjoy the samedegree of financial security as whites. Slavery was not limited to the South, although it wasmost widespread there. as a result, the black individual may come, in the end, tohate even himself" (Boxill 12). Cited in Dorothy Hoobler and Thomas Hoobler, African American Family Album. Eventually, whites regained control of Southand blacks were once again relegated to second-class citizenship. Soonblacks began to apply to white graduate schools, and cases involvingdenials for admission reached the Supreme Court. . African-Americans in the 199 s and in the 2 century are a diversegroup, yet society often focuses on their similarities. Most African-Americans spend little time reflecting on pastinstitutions such as slavery and segregated schools. Board ofEducation of Topeka. Unfortunately, formost sharecroppers, they could never finish paying their bills. Harsh punishment was common. Marshall's pessimism was correct. As a black Congressman who introduced anantilynching bill lamented, "I tremble with horror for the future of ournation when I think what must be the inevitable result if mob violence isnot stamped out of existence and law once more permitted to reign supreme"(White 362). "A Negro Senator Defends Himself." Cited in Loren Katz, Eyewitness: The Negro in American History. At harvestime they received a share of the crop theyproduced. . Evenafter the triumphs of Brown and the subsequent civil rights and black powermovements of the 196 s and 197 s, African-Americans have yet to achievetrue equality. Following the war was the Reconstruction Period (1865-1877) inwhich blacks and whites worked together to change and to rebuild the South. if I cannot enter theSenate except with bated breath and on bended knees, I prefer not to enterat all" (Pinchback 28). Consequently, many African-American scholars and community leadershave taken it upon themselves to research and write histories of slaveryfrom Afrocentric points of view. An examination of African-American culture from 185 -199 begins withblacks still in slavery. . At a celebration at NAACP headquarters, ThurgoodMarshall, who argued the case and later became the first black SupremeCourt justice, reportedly held a more pessimistic view and reportedly said,"You fools go ahead and have your fun, but we ain't begun to work yet"(Marshall cited in Boxhill 74). . 35.Kitano, Harry. Members of the black upper classinclude the rich and famous such as celebrities, politicians, and literaryfigures, along with leading members of the professional class, such asdoctors, lawyers, and executives. White Southerners were delightedwith this philosophy because it meant that blacks would not become overlyambitious and demand equal rights and professional employment. Race Relations. In many cases the victims were innocent but were hanged bymobs of lawless whites. Anti-black organizations such as the Ku KluxKlan were formed to intimidate African-Americans with violence and deprivethem of their civil rights. New requirements for voting allowed both blacks and poor whites to votefor the first time. 1 9-127.Marshall, Thurgood. Calling themselves the NiagaraMovement, this group later developed into the NAACP (National Associationfor the Advancement of Colored People). By 19 , the vast majority of blacks inthe South were either sharecroppers or tenant farmers. It cut the skin, raised great welts, and thewarm blood trickled down my back" (Keckley 35). These are the recipients of public aid, thehomeless, and those not seeking employment. Violence in the North was as harsh as it was in the South. Washington,an ex-slave, believed that industrial education was an important tool inthe black man's struggle for improvement. Despite these obstacles, they have made monumentalcontributions to American culture. S. The firstsegment is described as the working nonpoor. Although the slave trade was outlawed in 18 7,slavery itself existed until the 186 s, leaving a legacy of poverty andracial injustice. New York: Pitman, 1967. Thus forthe average sharecropper, freedom had little meaning and did not representa significant improvement over slavery: "There were fewer ways to escapefrom this system of economic bondage than there had been ways to escapeslavery" (Hoobler 52). Laws known as slave codes made it illegal to teach a slaveto read or write, helping a slave better himself. "Nothing in the experience of the slave owningclass had prepared it to deal with blacks as free workers, and in manyrespects it was less equipped to make the transition to freedom than itsformer slaves" (Litwack 113). "Lest We Forget From Whence We Have Come." Black Issues in Higher Education, 21 January 1999: 27.Hoobler, Dorothy, and Thomas Hoobler. Slavery, however,will always remain a part of the collective consciousness of black people,reminding them of the struggles of their ancestors and the debt they owe tomembers of society who fought to abolish the institution. The end of the Civil War meant the emancipation of African-Americanslaves. After slavery ended, African-Americansfaced both subtle and open discrimination in housing, education, andemployment. and with fearful force the rawhide descendedupon the quivering flesh. New York: Pitman, 1967. African American Family Album. New York: Pitman, 1967.Keckley, Elizabeth. Throughout the late part of the 19th century, the Supreme Courtignored the need to protect African-Americans, demonstrating to them thatthe many privileges enjoyed by whites were not to be extended to them. Large numbers of these migrantssettled in the West, some establishing all-black towns in places likeBoley, Oklahoma or Tennessee Town, a black community in Topeka, Kansas.The migration of blacks from the South angered some white Southerners who,without a large black population lost an important source of cheap labor.Penalties were heavy for blacks who broke old vagrancy laws or disregardedlabor contracts, but the mass exodus continued. Whenlarge plantations were broken up and made available to blacks, few had thefinancial resources to buy. In Plessy v Ferguson, blacks tested the Fourteenth Amendment, whichwas suppose to prevent the states from denying them their rights. "Congress White Introduces the First Antilynching Bill." Cited in Loren Katz, Eyewitness: The Negro in American History. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997.Litwack, Leon. However, theblack community exhibits the same class stratification as the whitecommunity: upper, middle, and lower. At the very bottom of the social ladder are the nonworking poor, alsoreferred to as the underclass. African-Americans were outraged by the acts of violence that many of their peoplesuffered and further outraged that whites were not punished for lawlessnessor murder. Theirvalues reflect mostly those of their white counterparts regarding theimportance of education, homeownership, and family. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.Katz, Loren. Two great thinkers, Brooker T. Robert Abzug and Stephen Maizlish. Slavery and its history are part of the African-American heritage: "For African-Americans, remembering our collective andpersonal histories is crucial. Blacks are, for themost part, integrated into mainstream society with the exception of pocketsof discrimination in housing, employment, and education. 28.White, George. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.