AFRICAN-AMER. STATUS IN LAST HALF OF 18TH CENT.   Term Paper ID:25514 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Examines living & working conditions of slaves & free blacks. Legal, economic, social, political, educational, religious, military aspects.... More...

8 Pages / 1800 Words 8 sources, 13 Citations, APA Format $32.00 Return to List of Papers

Paper Abstract: Examines living & working conditions of slaves & free blacks. Legal, economic, social, political, educational, religious, military aspects. Paper Introduction: The second half of the eighteenth century witnessed both progress and setbacks in the status of African-Americans, slave and free. The majority of African-Americans were still slaves, a painful experience. Conditions for some free blacks were not a significant improvement over slavery. Protests, by blacks and whites, over slavery resulted in a nascent abolitionist movement, albeit no great stand was made by any organized groups. Two events in the second half of the eighteenth century that had profound effects on the status of African-Americans were the Revolutionary War and the debate in Congress involving the introduction of slavery in the Northwest Territory. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, America was far from reaching a resolution of the “Negro Question.” African-Americans resented both the rigid control of Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. (1994) Cited in Timothy Hall, Contested Boundaries. For a long time, blacks were barred from service in theContinental army. For example, colonial revivalistGeorge Whitefield advocated field preaching, and the metaphor of theunwalled and inclusionary church, "The Lord, I am persuaded, would have HisGospel preached in the fields; and building a church would, I fear,insensibly lead the people into bigotry and make them place the Churchagain . (pp. The prospect of residing in close proximity to free blacks,whom whites assumed would flock to their states to associate with blackslaves, was a determining factor in the decision by nonslave states toreject the extension of slavery. . (1976) "The Revolution in Black Life." In A. Of all thereligious groups, the Quakers were most concerned with educating theAfricans, especially those who had gained their freedom. Although large numbers of African-Americans, free and slave, weredenied opportunities to obtain schooling, many somehow managed to learn toread and write, a significant milestone in their progress. The more fortunate slaves were able topurchase their freedom and possibly that of other members of theirfamilies. Blacks served admirably in the cause of the Revolution, one evidenceof which was the relatively low rate of desertion. (1961) The Negro in the American Revolution. Fortunately forthese slaves, New Englanders had great respect for learning. Religious groups, either out of abelief that Africans should be taught how to read the Bible so that theymight become good Christians, or through a genuine desire to educate blackpeople, started classes for them. However, policy gradually changed on a state by statebasis. These acts required thatslave owners register the discharge of any slave in the court records.Other slaves gained their freedom through a statement in their masters'last will and testament. Although most African-Americans during this period were slaves asignificant number were free. As more blacks emigrated to the Old Northwest, the degree of racialhatred intensified. After thewar, some masters freed their slaves in gratitude for their faithfulefforts; Washington was not among them. Enslaved blacksemployed a variety of protest mechanisms against these injustices includingsuicide, petitions for freedom, running away, uprisings, and conspiracies.Slave protests brought their plight to the attention of some whites, whosubsequently spoke out against slavery. Slaves who worked in towns, particularly those who were factoryworkers, had more opportunities to save money to meet the price they wouldbring if sold on the market: "[Factory work] allowed the slaves moreindependence. 35). Whites whoencouraged or supported such entry were fined. Blacks benefitted from a spirit ofevangelism among many religious groups. So committed were legislators to the passage of lawsthat would guarantee slavery, and thus lure slaveholders into the area,that the antislavery faction concentrated on sending counter-petitions toCongress rather than waste time on futile attempts to dissuade localpoliticians. Given the low opinion ofblacks, it is not surprising that they were denied the privilege of voting,and in many cases could not testify against whites in legal matters. In replying to an associate regarding theexpansion of slavery in Missouri, Jefferson writes, "The cession of thatkind of property, for so it is misnamed, is a bagatelle which would notcost me a second thought, if, in that way, a general emancipation andexpatriation could be affected" (Jefferson, p. Thus slave and free blacks inindustrial cities of the South maintained close contact. 31). Service inthe Revolutionary military often enhanced the patriotic loyalty of blacks.For the first time they could see themselves as active participants in thedestiny of their country. Manufactures often found it too costly to provide housingfor company slaves, so many were allowed to choose and pay for their ownaccommodations" (Butler, 1998, p. 2 ). 31). ReferencesBerlin, Ira. Their main objection tothe extension of slavery to the free states was their abject opposition tohaving blacks of any kind in the area: "Nonslaveholders in the OldNorthwest were hostile to slavery because they presumed that it created alarge free Negro population, and their dread of free Negroes was aggravatedby Negro migration to the region" (Berwanger, p. (pp. Eventually, the policy makers for the Continentalarmy had to change their rule regarding racial exclusion: "by the summer of1778, the Continental army was well sprinkled with blacks" (Quarles, 1961,p. Conditionsfor some free blacks were not a significant improvement over slavery.Protests, by blacks and whites, over slavery resulted in a nascentabolitionist movement, albeit no great stand was made by any organizedgroups. When Dunmore was defeated, many ofthe blacks who fought for him went to the Bermudas and freedom. History has documented the moral and economic issues behind thequestion of slavery and its extension, but racial prejudice played an evengreater role. (1998) "Richmond's Other Heroes: Finding African- American History in the Cradle of the Confederacy." American Heritage: 3 (3).Jefferson, Thomas. The principle settlers of the Old Northwest were nonslaveholdingSoutherners and people from the middle states. The majorityof African-Americans were still slaves, a painful experience. Oncewas economic rivalry. Many of the colonial leaders hadbeen reluctant to do so for fear that the practice would lead to massexodus of blacks. The major force which pushed for the education of African-Americans was the Church. Anti-black sentimentwas firmly rooted in the Northwest and as westward expansion accelerated,many Northwesterners emigrated and brought their prejudices with them. By the second half of theeighteenth century, antislavery views were being widely expressed for thefirst time. The region which recruited the most blacks was New England,followed by Virginia. Multiple factors contributed to this sentiment. The proslavery element made an emotional appeal topoor whites regarding the potential negative impact of an influx of blacks,both free and slave. 74). Although an increasing number of African-Americans demonstrated theirintellectual abilities in literature, oratory, teaching, mathematics, andscience, the debate about their mental ability during this era continued.Well-known whites like Thomas Jefferson asserted that blacks wereinherently inferior to whites. Asidefrom the economic motivation, free blacks were also lured by the sense ofadventure inherent in fighting for a cause in which they believed. (1967) The Frontier Against Slavery: Western Anti-Negro Prejudice and the Slavery Extension Controversy. 67). 67-74). New York: Library of America.Quarles, Benjamin. In Kentucky, for example, blacks ormulattoes were not allowed to enter or settle in the state. The poor white would be forced to work alongside theblack man and would become the victim of crime and harassment. Anti-black prejudice developed to such an extent in the Old Northwestthat exclusion laws were passed. Just as the Old Northwest was restricted legally by the dictates ofCongress on the issue of slavery, the region was also limited regarding thedegree of anti-black legislation it could pass. Legislators in the OldNorthwest feared that blatant anti-black laws would jeopardize their goalof achieving statehood, despite the fact that numerous petitions torestrict blacks were received from their constituencies. 79). Young (Ed.) The American Revolution: Explorations in the History of American Redicalism. Typically, blacks were relegated to the rank of private, and inthe membership roles were often not identified by name, only by labels suchas "A Negro Man" or "A Negro name unknown" (Quarles, p. 266). The second half of the eighteenth century witnessed both progress andsetbacks in the status of African-Americans, slave and free. Unofficial absence wasrampant among the regular troops. Although many stateexclusion laws were not effective because they were difficult to enforce,they demonstrate the degree of racial prejudice that existed at the time. New York: Library of America.Jefferson, Thomas. Many were land speculators who noted the reluctance ofslaveholders to move to Ohio as long as the slavery issue was unresolved:"Proslavery arguments stressed that slavery would relieve economic distressand increase the price of land" (Berwanger, 1967, p. Thomas Jefferson was anardent supporter of this option. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Bull, Lisa. Among them were William Lee, the servant of GeorgeWashington, who was listed as a member of the patriot forces. It is not surprising thatDunmore and the British were considered liberators by many black slaves:"many Negroes did participate in the war effort. Theaccomplishments and contributions of free blacks were looked upon asindividual achievements and not as representative of the abilities ofblacks as a group. DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press.Berwanger, Eugene. Supporters of slavery were extremely proactive in getting statelegislators to send petitions to Congress on the matter in the areaNorthwest of the Ohio between 1787-1824. 7 9-1518). Other prominentwhites, such as Benjamin Franklin, president of the first antislaverysociety in America, believed that blacks were not deficient in terms ofintelligence. Freedom was achieved in a number of ways.Some slaves were freed by an act of legislation. The period of the American Revolution was a turning point in thecolonists' thinking about blacks and slavery. The main impetus for their zealwas economic. Slaves continued to liveunder the same conditions as they had before the Revolutionary War. As the struggleprogressed, active involvement on one side or the otherwas determined by the promise of personal gain" (Bull, 1976, p. Some slaves who fought in the war were those who fought alongsidetheir masters. Some blacks acceptedoffers to relocate to Africa, particularly Liberia; however, thecolonization movement never caught on, partly because of lack of fundingand partly because of the commitment of blacks to the country of theirbirth. (pp. When manpower became severely acute, the colonies themselves wereforced to accept black soldiers as well. Prejudice and ignorance fed the institution of slaveryand allowed it to thrive in eighteenth century America. But among blacks, desertion was lesscommon, partly because of the intrinsic motivation of gaining freedom andpartly because of economic realities: "[Blacks] were not likely to have afarm that needed protection nor the kind of home that inspiredhomesickness. 67). 1434). For this reason, a substantial number of black slaves joined theBritish cause: "As the war dragged on, military necessity forced theBritish and then, more reluctantly, Americans to muster black slaves intotheir armies by offering them freedom in exchange for their services"(Berlin, 1976, p. Durham: Duke University Press. 37). When money could not be used as an inducement for service, somestates, such as Virginia, offered land grants. Slaves in NewEngland had the best chance of getting some education because the laws inthese colonies did not prohibit the teaching of slaves. In his Notes on the State of Virginia,Jefferson wrote, "in memory they are equal to the whites, in reason muchinferior, as I think one could scarcely be found capable of tracing andcomprehending the investigations of Euclid; and that in imagination theyare dull, tasteless, and anomalous" (Jefferson, p. When thewar ended, other blacks who served under the British relocated to GreatBritain, Canada, Africa, and the West Indies. (1984) "Notes on the State of Virginia." Thomas Jefferson: Writings. For this reason, free blacks entering states in theNorthwest were forced to post bonds, sometimes up to $1, for their "goodbehavior and self-support" (Berwanger, p. Whitesalso feared that their states would become dumping grounds for manumittedblacks, who many whites considered "worthless, idle and dissolute"(Berwanger, p. Once statehoodwas achieved, however, states such as Illinois and Indiana quickly enactedrepressive legislation, such as miscegenation laws and the establishment ofsystems of indenture servitude for blacks. They did not object toslavery as an institution in the Southern states. After the Revolutionary War, African-Americans became the topic ofnational debate regarding the introduction of slavery in the NorthwestTerritory. Congress sided with the antislavery faction on the issue,which led the proslavery group to suggest alternatives aimed at theadoption of some form of limited forced labor. In spite of their limited educational opportunities, blacksmanaged to distinguish themselves, as witnessed by the contributions toAmerican culture of poet Phillis Wheatley, mathematician and astronomerBenjamin Banneker, and explorer Jean Baptiste Pont DuSable. Anotherfear that was exploited among whites was that of miscegenation. They had less to desert to" (Quarles, p. Despite thediscrimination they faced in the military, many free blacks joinedwillingly. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.Whitefield, George. The Southerners, inparticular, had lived with slavery all their lives. Blacks who hadthe means and ability to teach others also helped out by educating thoseless fortunate. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, Americawas far from reaching a resolution of the "Negro Question." African-Americans resented both the rigid control of freedom and theharsh punishment characteristic of the institution of slavery. 123-326). Many times slaves received freedom as a rewardfor long and praiseworthy service. (1984) "Letters." Thomas Jefferson: Writings. Blacks, both free and slave,had very high personal stakes in the outcome of the Revolutionary War.Free blacks believed that their conditions would improve if the outcome wasfavorable to the colonists. Two events in the second half of the eighteenth century that hadprofound effects on the status of African-Americans were the RevolutionaryWar and the debate in Congress involving the introduction of slavery in theNorthwest Territory. Many free blacksestablished benevolent organizations and secret societies to assist theirenslaved brethren. Black slaves had an even bigger stake, theirfreedom. 71). Lord Dunmore, royal governor of Virginia, led a troop of blacksoldiers called the Ethiopian Regiment. So vexed were whites regarding the potential influence of largenumbers of free black settlers, many legislatures in the Old Northwestproposed colonization as the ultimate solution to the "Negro Question."Colonization was the voluntary removal of blacks to their native Africa.Colonization societies were established in several states includingMichigan, Iowa, Ohio, Indiana, and Wisconsin. For African-Americans in the second half of the eighteenth century,the formation of a new government and the framing of a new constitutiongave little hope for the abolition of slavery. Most of the newresidents who settled in the region were nonslaveholders, but held littlepolitical influence. . Westfield, MA: Historical Journal of Western Massachusetts.Butler, Atiya. Most of the blacks who served in the war were members of mixedregiments. 16). The prospect of propertyownership was a powerful inducement for blacks and whites alike. (1967) "Negro." In Frederick Harling and Martin Kaufman (Eds.) The Ethnic Contribution to the American Revolution. in the church walls" (Whitefield, 1994, p. Slaves werenot allowed to enjoy even the most basic human rights, and were deniedfreedom to live as a family without fear of separation. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.