ROBESON, PAUL.   Term Paper ID:24756 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Life, career & legacy of 20th Cent. African-Amer. scholar, singer, actor & social & political activist persecuted by U.S. govt.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Life, career & legacy of 20th Cent. African-Amer. scholar, singer, actor & social & political activist persecuted by U.S. govt. Paper Introduction: The career of Paul Robeson, an extraordinary scholar, entertainer, and activist, was destroyed by the U.S. government. Robeson was persecuted because he was an idealist, a man of principle. He envisioned an American society in which people of all classes and colors had equal status, and believed that socialism was a promising step toward achieving this ideal. Unfortunately, U.S. government officials believed that any criticism of the American system was subversive. The government subsequently mounted a vicious campaign aimed at rendering Robeson's career virtually nonexistent. During the 1890s, when Paul Robeson was born, the majority of African Americans lived in the South, an environment charged with racial bitterness and contention. Lynch mobs murdered scores of blacks each year. Although blacks had the right to Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. With their son enrolled in a Russianschool, the Robesons became frequent visitors to the Soviet Union. While in Europe in 1949, Robeson gave a speech that proved a majorturning point in his life. He was feted by members of the Russian upperclass, but, typical of a man of his character, Robeson insisted on viewingthe living conditions of the working class as well. He was impressed notonly with the relative economic equality that he saw but also with theseeming racial equality. Robeson was not, however, content to merely reap accolades as anentertainer; he believed that as an artist and celebrity he had anobligation to help the oppressed. Reportershounded him, trying to induce him to come out strongly against communismand the Soviet Union. . State Department demanded that he turn in hispassport. Anticipating trouble, some Peekskill residents urged New Yorkofficials to send in state police to prevent trouble; the request wasdenied. In 1946, Robeson was called before the Joint Fact-Finding Committeeon Un-American Activities, a California group run by State Senator JackTenney. At onetime, Malcolm X was the leading spokesman for the Nation of Islam and theBlack Muslims, an organization that espoused racial separatism. Despite thisunprecedented campaign of oppression, Robeson would not be silenced. (The Great Depression hit African Americanshard; with high unemployment, whites started to take away the domesticservice jobs that were the foundation of economic health in the blackcommunity.) Robeson spoke at length with many of the Black residents ofthe Soviet Union: "Robeson became convinced that the Soviets had solvedthe minorities question--'in the only way it can be solved by granting self-determination to all nations within its boundaries" (Duberman 189).Robeson was so encouraged by living conditions in Russia that he activelyinvestigated the possibility of becoming a Soviet citizen. In addition, Robeson also playedfootball, and was twice named to the All-American football team. Ferguson. officials were terrified thatthe Russians would capture the technology to manufacture atomic bombs anduse them against their former allies. During the 189 s, when Paul Robeson was born, the majority of AfricanAmericans lived in the South, an environment charged with racial bitternessand contention. By this time, he was beginning to develop hisideas about blacks and discrimination in America. Robeson's father was ahighly respected pastor of a black congregation. Blacks, most of whom were employed as domestics and laborers, hadmodest homes in the western section of Princeton. government. Rutgers was an all-white school, and fiercely competitive. Robeson graduatedfrom Columbia Law School in 1923, and even secured a position in a whitelaw firm, but racial prejudice blocked this career path: "the firm'swealthy white clients were unlikely ever to agree to let him try a casebefore a judge, for fear his race would prove a detriment" (Duberman 55). Although Robeson experienced both success andfailure in his efforts to portray blacks in a fresh and honest way, he putdemands on Hollywood moviemakers about the kinds of films he wanted and hissalary and working conditions that were unprecedented for black actors. Robeson refused to let his personal successovershadow the needs of his people. But in the American mindset, belief insocialism automatically made a person a "communist," an extremely dangerouslabel. In Robeson's words, "On ourselves alone will depend thepreservation of our liberties and the transmission of them in theirintegrity to those who will come after us" (S. Although the United States had been allied with the Soviet Unionduring World War II, after peace came many Americans began to fear Russia'sgrowing influence in Eastern Europe. But the achievement of African Americans still lags behindwhites, partly because of some of the same social pressures Robeson foughtagainst: racism, discrimination, and lack of equal opportunity. where it has belonged for over 3 years of slavery and misery,right here on our own doorstep . " (S. . Secaucus, NJ: Citadel,1981.----------------------- 6 One hundred years after the anniversary of Robeson's birthday,improvement is evident in black America, but much progress remains. Robesonrefused: "Robeson himself denounced the passport action as one moreattempt by the Truman administration 'to silence the protests of the Negropeople'--but his statement was not widely carried in the press" (Duberman39 ). Eventually he landed in SomervilleHigh, a largely white school. He also participated in varioussports and extracurricular activities. His father's principles of racial tolerance served youngRobeson well throughout his academic career and beyond. Nevertheless, Malcolm X, as Robeson, continued to believe inblack self-determination. In interviewing Robeson, the key question asked by thecommittee was, "Are you a member of the Communist Party?" Granted,membership in the Communist Party was not illegal in the United States, butthis did not deter the conservative faction from their witch hunt.Although Robeson flatly denied being a member of the Communist Party, hedeclared that, because of its ideals, it was, for him, preferable to eitherthe Republican or Democratic party. Spurred by the national hysteria against communism, governmentofficials ratcheted their persecution of Robeson to new heights. Record companiesrefused to let Robeson record new albums. Alsoduring the 192 s, Robeson gave his first concert, one devoted to blackspirituals. U.S. The second concert was evenbloodier than the first, and it was clear that the police had fraternizedwith the rioters: "Some of the troopers joked with the anti-Robeson forceson the embankment; others joined the attackers below" (Duberman 369). A folk-singing organization had booked Robeson and other artists toperform for labor unions and political groups. When the Progressive Partypresidential candidate was soundly defeated by Harry Truman, right-wingpoliticians concluded that the public had given them a mandate to attackthe Communist party and its defenders. However,after being suspended as a minister of the Nation, and a subsequentpilgrimage to Mecca, Malcolm X founded the Organization for Afro-Americanunity, and no longer preached racial separatism but rather a socialistrevolution. The government subsequently mounted avicious campaign aimed at rendering Robeson's career virtually nonexistent. . Robeson's political beliefs translated into political activism. The right-wing attack against Robeson filtered down through the ranksof the music industry, effectively shutting down Robeson's career. Blacks are represented in all occupational professions,including law. Years later, Robeson wrote about the impact of the press'smisinterpretation of his words, "what I said on that occasion has beendistorted and misquoted in such a way as to impugn my character as a loyalAmerican citizen" (Robeson 41). Robeson firstattended the all-black Jamison School. He was ashining example of humanity. Robeson had to fight for years to keep fromhaving to pay taxes on the $25, cash award that accompanied the prize. The entertainer traveled to the World PeaceCongress in Paris and spoke to thousands of delegates from sixty countries. . Robeson 118). It was a brief visit, and he did not seea great deal of the country. Proceeds for the concertwere to go the Civil Rights Congress, a group organized to work againstracism and anti-Semitism. Reportersinterpreted Robeson as saying that blacks would never fight against theSoviet Union. The unfair treatment received by Robeson at the hands of thegovernment can be likened to the treatment of boxer Muhammad Ali. . You bet they will never let me play a part in a film in which a Negrois on top" (S. . Hegave concerts inside prisons. . After graduation from Rutgers, Robeson's initial career choice waslaw, and he moved to New York City to live in Harlem and enter the ColumbiaUniversity Law School. Robeson, who had previously visited Berlin andexperienced the atmosphere of animosity and fear brought on by fascism,felt that Russia was the one country willing to oppose Hitler and Germany.Thus Robeson was inclined to think favorably about Russia; however, he wasunprepared for the warm reception he received and the positive social andeconomic climate he witnessed. Despitethese assaults, the ranks of the black middle class has grownsignificantly. Robeson also scored amajor victory with the return of his passport. Robeson refused to perform in front of segregated audiences; he wasan outspoken critic of imperialism in the black world and discriminationagainst blacks in America. Robeson's testimony before the California committee signalled thebeginning of his downfall. In Robeson's words, "the liberation movementmust be led by an independent black leadership" (Robeson xvi). He envisioned an Americansociety in which people of all classes and colors had equal status, andbelieved that socialism was a promising step toward achieving this ideal.Unfortunately, U.S. However,there were still some incidents of racism involving other teams,particularly those from Southern states. Only after the war didRobeson's crusades for social equality arouse serious controversy. . Robeson 172). In Harlem, Robeson met his future wife EslandaCardozo Goode (Essie), a young woman from a family that valued education asmuch as Robeson's family did. Lynch mobs murdered scores of blacks each year. By the 193 s, Robeson had become an international star. Robeson's first visit toRussia occurred in 1934; it was a trip that he had dreamed of for years.Besides studying Russian, Robeson read Soviet news publications and wasparticularly interested in the Russians' treatment of minority groups.Over the years he had heard conflicting stories about life in the SovietUnion and he wanted to see for himself. The StateDepartment offered to return the passport on the condition that Robesonsign a pledge not to make any speeches in foreign countries. The dramatic representation of blacks andtheir related socioeconomic issues is rare, unless shown in the context ofcriminal activity. From the outset, he was defiant" (Robeson 2 3).When asked about his affiliations, Robeson invoked the Fifth Amendment.Robeson's defiance was, and had always been, based on his belief that tocomply with the committee's demands would infringe upon the constitutionalrights of all Americans. Consequently, Robeson and Essie travelled widely. Americans also feared that some oftheir fellow citizens were spying for the Russians. Granted, there is no longer one token blackleading man in films as Robeson was, but African Americans aredisproportionately represented in comedic roles, particularly on televisionnetworks like WB, UPN, and Fox. government officials believed that any criticism of theAmerican system was subversive. Years later, the HouseCommittee on Un-American Activities (HCUA) accepted testimony from anaccuser who had heard Robeson's speech seven years earlier. Robeson's answers so angered the committee that oneSenator told reporters, "Robeson seems to want to be made a martyr. The revocation of his passport created extreme financial hardship forRobeson. Invitations poured in from foreign countries for him to perform,but he could not accept. Robeson was persecutedbecause he was an idealist, a man of principle. The career of Paul Robeson, an extraordinary scholar, entertainer,and activist, was destroyed by the U.S. At graduation, Robeson was chosenas class valedictorian. The title of hisvaledictorian speech was "The New Idealism," a discourse which revealed afaith that a lone individual can achieve victory no matter what theobstacles. During this visit, thenation was engulfed in a series of purges of the opposition party by JosephStalin. When Robeson returned to the United States in 1949, his troublesreached their climax with an explosive event at a concert in Peekskill, NewYork. Boston: Beacon, 1988.Robeson, Susan. FBI agents tapped Robeson's phone and readhis mail. Robeson's insistence on social change in his home country placed himat direct odds with those in government who wished to maintain the statusquo. Delegates represented trade unions and variousnationalities and racial groups, as well as a number of Communist Partymembers. During the 194 s, Robeson challenged many of the very values thatformed the basis of American government. He won the world heavyweight championship and was a spokesman for,and idol, of blacks. Robeson left the industry when he realized his ownpowerlessness in achieving this ideal: "Films make me into some cheap turn. Incontrast, Robeson exhibited unflagging support for the ideals of socialism: "On many occasions I have publicly expressed my . Although mention of Robeson is rarely found in mainstream historybooks, his image looms large in the annals of black history. Consequently, Robeson regained acceptance withthe public and returned to the concert circuit. He was notallowed to resume fighting until 197 and had his appeal of convictionupheld by the U.S. They also pressured concert promoters and Robeson's associatesto deny him performance opportunities. . Works CitedDuberman, M. He died in 1976. Thus the politicalclimate concerning Communism and the Soviet Union chilled considerably. Supreme Count legitimized theprinciple of "separate but equal" in its ruling Plessy v. He led a delegation of African Americans tohelp break the color barrier in major-league baseball, and was instrumentalin Jackie Robinson's acceptance into the league. He wassought after for concerts, movies, and plays in Europe as well as theUnited States. Robeson's visits to, and subsequent praise of, the Soviet Unionraised eyebrows among conservatives in America. Despite the abolition of slavery, many whites feltthat blacks were inherently inferior. He played the title role in the 1943 Broadway production ofOthello. . Although Robeson had stated in his testimony beforethe California committee that he was not a communist, he refused, out ofprinciple, to reiterate this statement on other occasions. During the party's campaign, Robeson went to Washington totestify against the proposed Mundt-Nixon bill, a law that would haverequired all Communist party members and Communist-allied groups toregister with the federal government. Several days before the event, local newspapersaccused Robeson of having followers who were Communists. In 1896 the U.S. Robeson was a brilliant student,academically and athletically, a fact that served as an affront to whitesupremacists: "Robeson's natural talents were so exceptional that he hadto make a proportionately large effort in order to forestall resentment inothers" (Duberman 15). Robeson's assessment of the career opportunities forblack artists in Hollywood still holds true today, "it is still a hardstruggle to win an equal place for them in the theatre, films, radio andtelevision . To makeamends, citizens of Peekskill who had not joined the mob, organized andinvited Robeson back for another concert. In 1953, Robeson was awarded the Stalin PeacePrize from the Soviet Union. Record stores pulled his musicfrom the shelves. He starred in such features as Jericho, The Emperor Jones,Sanders of the River, Song of Freedom, Show Boat, and Proud Valley.Robeson sincerely believed he could make a significant contribution to theportrayal of positive black images in film, thus removing cultural andracial stereotypes. Robeson's attempt to return to Europe to resume his career wasblocked in 195 when the U.S. Robeson was born in Princeton, New Jersey, a community which,although quiet and well-educated, exhibited many of the features ofSouthern segregationism. Throughout his ordeal, Robeson was under surveillance by the FederalBureau of Investigation (FBI). Robeson's activism and single-minded commitment to the furtherance ofthe cause of African Americans can also be compared to Malcolm X. In aspeech at a rally in Harlem, he insisted, "We must have the courage toshout at the top of our voices about our injustices and we must lay theblame . Finally, in 1956, Robeson was given a chance to face his governmentaccusers and appear before the HUAC. Manycauses that Robeson adopted were principles that most Americans now favorwholeheartedly; but during the 194 s, Robeson was a man ahead of his time. In spite of Robeson's denial of being aCommunist, he soon became the victim of the public's wrath. " (Robeson 31). Robeson spent hisfinal years in seclusion. By the late 195 s, Americans had grown tired of the government'spersecution of Communists. But the government'scampaign against him had already taken its toll. Robeson's testimony before theSenate committee quickly turned into an interrogation about his ideas onRussia and communism. Throughthis exposure to distant corners of the globe, Robeson was able to adopt aworldview that embraced people of all colors as brothers and sisters.Robeson witnessed the anti-fascism struggles of Spain and the Labormovement in Britain and received "a further insight and understanding ofthose forces in world life which make for common interests and make realthe concept of international brotherhood" (Robeson 54). . Government officials weredetermined to erode this power. Ali was strippedof his championship title in 1967 and banned from boxing. . Robeson likened theracial environment of Princeton to that of a Southern plantation (Duberman6). Like many liberals of his time,Robeson believed that Russia was the one country in the world striving forequality for all citizens. Robeson's performance in Othelloearned him the Academy of Arts and Letters' Gold Medal for best diction inthe American theater and the Donaldson Award for best actor. With his concert career in theUnited States practically vanished overnight, Robeson booked concertengagements in Europe; there, he performed to sell-out crowds. This infuriatedthe press and certain members of the public. deep conviction thatfor all mankind a socialist society represents an advance to a higher stageof life . (Robeson was called before thecommittee for alleged unauthorized use of his passport.) Repeatedly, thecommittee members pressed Robeson to say whether he was a member of theCommunist party as other witnesses and informers had alleged. Robesonstuck to his principles and refused to explicitly state whether or not hewas a communist: "He was well aware of the likelihood of a prison term ifhe refused to cooperate. At Somerville, Robeson was featured in hisfirst production of Shakespeare's Othello. government. In 1948, Robeson became involved with a new political party, theProgressive Party. Unlike Robeson, Ali later wenton to fully regain his celebrity status in the United States. Robeson118). Ali's conversion to the Black Muslim religion wasdramatic, and alienated him from some whites. Newspapers wroteeditorials condemning him, and refused to cover his press conferences orprint his rebuttals to the accusations against him. Increased immigration into these cities has affected the jobprospects of many Americans, including blacks. Robeson'stheater and concert performances consistently drew overflow crowds: "Paulwas one of the most popular concert artists in America and the mostprominent Black man in the world" (S. By the early 194 s, Robeson was at the height of his success as anentertainer. Some city councils passed resolutionsurging people not to attend Robeson's concerts. Here I Stand. Essie married Robeson while he was still alaw student; although he had other managers over the years, Essie oftendirected her husband's financial and business affairs. But Robeson, impressed by the Soviets' movements toward democracy,joined the Russians in their support of Stalin. ethically superior to a system based upon production forprivate profit" (Robeson 39). Supreme Court in 1971. During the 193 s, a number of American blacks hademigrated to the Soviet Union. Robeson 92). Earlier, during the 193 s, he helped foundthe Council on African Affairs, a group that served as the strongest forcein the United States working to help Africans achieve independence. Affirmative action, whichhas been instrumental in helping blacks overcome the effects ofinstitutional racism, is under attack in many parts of the nation. He opposed imperialism,pushed for racial integration in America's armed forces, and became aspokesman for blacks and for workers. Robeson's first visit to the Soviet Union occurred during a goldenperiod in that country's history. He also was a debatingchampion and joined the glee club. The Whole World in his Hands. Almost no one checked the accuracy of theallegations thrown at Robeson by the press. But a key statement in this speech was so twisted and distorted by thepress that Robeson became vilified and embroiled in controversy. Increasingly, his performances reflectedhis political beliefs: "Even with his success and wealth, he refused tolet his own advancement obscure the degradation and racism that oppressedBlack people--and he said so publicly, at every opportunity" (S. As a result,right-wing local groups announced plans to stage a protest march during theconcert. Robeson was not, however,unpatriotic; after World War II, he performed at War Bond rallies andtoured weapons factories to sing for workers. With his hopes for a law career dashed, Robeson drifted for a season,during a period known as the Black Renaissance, an awakening of blackculture and art. (Racial controversy shrouded this playbecause one scene involved a white woman kissing Robeson's hand.) LaterRobeson played the lead in The Emperor Jones, a play that fostered racialstereotypes by portraying blacks as superstitious and uncivilized. Robeson returned to the Soviet Union in 1936. Paul Robeson. Robeson 29). On the evening of the concert, the protest groups arrived, heavilyarmed. When Robeson refused, the government canceled the passport andordered border officials to stop him from leaving the country. For college, Robeson chose Rutgers University. The committee subpoenaed teachers, government employees, andactors to testify. Someconcert halls refused to rent space to Robeson; promoters would not hirehim. His performance was praised by critics and was considered by manya major milestone in American democracy. A college-educated man,and the victim of blatant racial injustice himself, the Reverend Robesonrefused to indulge in reverse racism and instilled this principle in hisson: "He had taught him to reject the automatic assumption that all whitesare malignant, to react to individuals, not to a hostile white mass"(Duberman 18). Robeson threw himself into the fightto end lynchings in the South; he attended rallies and became chairman ofthe Crusade Against Lynching. The trip alsoawakened in Robeson an interest in Marxism and communism. Princeton public schools were segregated, and formany years no blacks could go to the university. Althoughblacks had the right to vote, election fraud was notorious. Robeson was fluent inthe languages of many of the countries in which he performed, includingRussian. Robesonwas still a man who had great impact on the concert stage and on thepolitical thought of African Americans. Maybewe ought to make him one" (Duberman 33 ). His health was broken; hesuffered from circulatory disease and mental problems. In thefield of entertainment, where Robeson was a trailblazer, discrimination andracial stereotypes abound. New York: New Press, 1989.Robeson, Paul. By his junior year, Robeson waselected to the honor society, Phi Beta Kappa. A violent confrontation ensued, but no arrests were made. During this visit, Robeson and hiswife decided to have their son Pauli educated in Russia: "Pauli entered aSoviet Model School, with Stalin's daughter and Molotov's son among hisschoolmates, and he took at once to the kindliness of his Russian teachersand to (in Essie's report home) 'the complete lack of colour consciousnessamong the students'" (Duberman 2 8). However, it was Ali'srefusal to enter military service on religious grounds during the VietnamWar that prompted retaliation from the U.S. Today, African Americans face considerable challenges in living up tothe legacy left to them by Paul Robeson. Harlem was the focus of this cultural resurgence.Thousands of blacks had moved North to find jobs; although barred from manyoccupations, some found the entertainment world and the arts open to them.Robeson began his own professional career as the lead in the Eugene O'Neillplay All God's Chillun Got Wings. As early as high school, Robeson demonstrated hisability to thrive under difficult circumstances. According to Robeson, the committeehad "no reason to be inferring communism as evil" (Duberman 3 8). To support this belief they soughtrationalizations through religion, sociology, and science: "This deadlyconfusion between biology and social learning could, by easy re-emphasis,yield a value judgment about innate black "childishness" that served as aperpetually self-justifying rationale for proscription and separation"(Duberman 65). Robeson realized thatRussia was a country with faults, but it opposed Western imperialism andits people did not exhibit the blatant racial discrimination rampant inmany parts of the United States; thus he felt it was not his place tocriticize Russia's internal problems. Late-19thcentury statues passed by the legislatures of the Southern states created aracial caste system. So pervasive was the right-wing opposition to Robesonthat it was almost as if he had ceased to exist. Blacks, a predominantly urbanpopulation, have suffered disproportionately from the decline of centralcities. Even Northern liberals were inclined to agree with white-supremacist attitudes. To help pay for law school, he played professionalfootball on weekends. Between 1932 and 1939, Robeson worked actively in the Hollywood filmindustry. Duringthe 196 s and 197 s, Ali was the most celebrated sports figure in theworld. 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