COMMUNIST THEATER.   Term Paper ID:23838 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: History, theory, purposes, effectiveness & changing philosophy underlying Russian & Chinese Communist use of theater as political propaganda tool to control thought & behavior.... More...

22 Pages / 4950 Words 6 sources, 19 Citations, MLA Format $88.00 Return to List of Papers

Paper Abstract: History, theory, purposes, effectiveness & changing philosophy underlying Russian & Chinese Communist use of theater as political propaganda tool to control thought & behavior. Paper Introduction: Theater as Propaganda Tool In order to be effective, a country’s political system must be stable. Among the numerous benefits that stability offers, it protects the country from outside invasion by presenting to the outside world an image of strength. A country is less likely to invade another when the other country can demonstrate a consistent policy and back up the consistent policy with a populace in favor of it. Furthermore, stability enables a country to achieve domestic goals with greater efficiency. A country divided against itself, unstable in its internal goals or objectives, is hampered by indecision. In other words, for a political system to operate effectively, it must have the cooperation of those governed by it. Without the general assent o Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. One ofthe most essential elements in developing such cooperation and singularityis the control of public opinion. New York: Arno, 1974.Gorchakov, Nikolai. If it was presented withsufficient philosophical underpinnings, historical dramas lent a notablelegitimacy to the claims of the government that Communism was China'sdestiny, while at the same time it satisfied artistic calls for classicaltheater. The theater,already under fire, faced an even more devastating policy. The message took the predominant role,and issues of theatrical technique and theory were judged only by howeffective they were in serving the needs of the state (Gorchakov 141-146). Thefinal years of the Cultural Revolution, from 1974 to 1976, saw an intenseincrease in public acceptance of the revolutionary drama, a phenomenon thatwas met afterwards with an equally strong repudiation of it. Successes of the maincharacters were frequently attributed to personal characteristics, ratherthan to revolutionary factors. Censorship increased, classical plays were banned, "decadence" wasrooted out. In this way,citizens respond to the future as if it were an inevitable construct of thefictionalized past. Any attempt toproduce classical theater was seen as an attempt to impede the progressionof the Communist revolution. Rules ofdramaturgy were tossed out in favor of indoctrination. Therefore, modern dramas mustreplace the old on stage, and this is an irresistible historicimpulse. Only with this type of model and with our successfulexperience in this area will we be persuasive, able toconsolidate our hold on this front, and able to knock down thestick of the reactionaries (Lin Biao, as cited in Judd 96). In thisfashion, public opinion was peacefully manipulated. Bolshevism, in short, destroyed Russian theater for the sakeof "saving" the Russian people: [Bolshevism] has given the peoples a surrogate for thetheater arts-the theater propaganda play. The individualhas done the work for the state by adopting the "appropriate" beliefs. Theater forms adapted themselves tosuit the purposes of the state, and the masses (out of respect or fear)attended plays regardless of the paucity of artistic merit. As for the new drama itself, much concern was expressed by partyofficials and theater professionals regarding the type of hero to bepresented. Deeply embedded in the psyche of theAmerican people, for example, is the Horatio Alger story. Those whoclaim otherwise, according to Mao, are using subterfuge to create theillusion that some aspects of life are untouched by politics. Communism hastoppled in the former Soviet Union, and China is encouraging theperformance of classical theater again. Its transparent subservience hasbecome a subject of satire. Some of these benefits came to pass. The Chinese Theatre in Modern Times. This extended as far as inclusion of the production of Western-style operas, although the Western acting tradition was an ill fit withChinese classical techniques and was not widely used. Therefore, Chinese drama must reflect Chinese politics. Without the generalassent of the majority of people, a political system becomes unstable,opening the country to numerous hazards. Class struggle, as inRussia, proved to be a fertile area for propaganda. The 1 years between 1966 and 1976 are thought of in Chinese dramaticcircles as the "ten-year catastrophe" (Tang and MacKerras 165). Classical dramas were notmerely shunned, but were also roundly condemned in the strongest terms.Authors of "reactionary" plays were denounced; figures who had achievedprominence in artistic circles underwent severe attacks. In fact, this is likely. Historicalplays define reality in a specific, state-approved fashion, and, throughthe interpretation of history's meaning, citizens come to understand whatis expected of them and where history may go in the future. Therefore, a mobilized citizenry which enthusiastically adopts thephilosophical tenets of the country's political system is in the bestinterests of the rulers of a country. The leadership of a country must controlpublic opinion or risk losing authority. According to Gorchakov,falsifying history became "the sole method of soviet drama" (179) In 1927, Soviet collectivization intensified, resulting in aclampdown on all private activities. Traditionaland Western music, drama and dance were totally erased from the stage.Today, Chinese drama is making strides toward repairing the damage thatoccurred during that period: The rescue of traditional theater before old actors diewas identified as the most urgent task. We advocate the revolutionary drama which alone mustoccupy the major position on the stage (Hung-ch'i, as cited inMacKerras 169). The new theaters also began producing "propagandistic trials," inwhich speeches supporting Communistic positions were made against thebackdrop of legal proceedings. Philosophy may be debated. Simply to decree change would be to overplay the hand-to betoo transparently manipulative. This is true for a couple of reasons. The condemnation of classical theater reached a point whereeven the notion of entertainment was suspect. First, local peasant drama was emphasized. Reports and debates were staged, as well. Among the formats that were created to meet the demand forincreased Communist content were the "staged issue," in which a problem ofthe state was dramatized. The internal life of the peoplewatching the plays and the external representation of theater combined toadd depth and width to the Communist purpose. However, actors in the playssoon became aware that the Communist party was not going anywhere, and sotheater companies entered into a delicate rapprochement with the governmentat the beginning of the Deng period, around 1949. Once Communism had become firmly entrenched in Chinese life, Mao tookseveral steps to insure that drama played a part in furthering theCommunist cause. All is sublimated to thedesires of the political system. Sportingevents, theatrical presentations, films, and television are all effectivemethods of communicating a state's goals and objectives in a pleasing,patriotic format while avoiding the blatant jingoism of massdemonstrations. Plays written by soldiersthat extolled the virtues of Communism were copied and distributedthroughout the Soviet Union, and theater soon became a national obsession. Art, according to Mao, should not serve the richbut the masses. New forms andstructures for the theater that did not serve Communist ideals weredistortions of the purity of the Communist philosophy. Furthermore, stability enables acountry to achieve domestic goals with greater efficiency. It was moresymbolic, more of an integrated art form. TheRussian revolution altered the course of every aspect of Russiairrevocably: "On the night of February 26, 1917, the audience returned fromMeyerhold's production of Lermontov's Masquerade through side streets andalleyways because trucks and bullets were racing through the mainthoroughfare" (Gorchakov 97). (MacKerras, 165). The structure of theater began to change as well. uneducated,citizen. Contradictory systems have lessprobability of being adopted than internally consistent ones. Did the propagandization of the theater succeed? In both the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China,Communist authorities attempted to usurp the function of drama forpropagandistic ends. This meant acontinuation of the propagandistic policies that had been in place sincethe Revolution. The temporal desires of those underthe sway of Communism would not be able to reverse 2 years of theatricalhistory, so the theater professionals argued. The threat to theleadership of a country that does not support its goals is internalturbulence, which can result in violent overthrow from within. Theaterattendance and assent to the ideas expressed within propaganda playsoffered the common citizen effective ways of demonstrating patriotism. If by success, one means the gradual success of the Communistphilosophy, the drama had as little an impact as any other propaganda tool.Just as other methods of Soviet propaganda dissemination were eventuallydebunked, so too was Communist theater. However, a philosophy that carries within it a malevolent attitudetoward humanity, that sees human beings as expendable, that seeks onlypower, might be termed a coercive philosophy. Also, theater professionals were put to the task ofdetermining what aspects of traditional Chinese drama represented positiveCommunistic ideals and what represented feudal, non-progressive ideals.This process led to the banning or severe censorship of numerous plays andto the heavy editing of many plays that had elements that were acceptableto the governmental hierarchy, and yet fell short in other areas. These hazards include invasion,loss of wealth, and gradual movement toward dictatorship. The good of all can be quickly transformed to the good of thefew, and then to the good of whoever maintains the strongest grip onauthority. However, whenindividuals truly believe that their state's philosophy is the best of allpossible philosophies, the state has no need to be coercive. One essential element of propaganda is that it not be recognized assuch. Ideals carried out by flawed humans can swiftly becomeperverted. In 1958, the government initiated a program designed to injectmore ideological content in drama. The attitude toward the revision of history to suit Communistpurposes was that drama was of the moment. All subjects were universally yoked to serve the aims of theBolsheviks. In both cases, their efforts failed. Had the peoples of thesecountries believed fervently in the Communist cause, such plays would havegrown naturally out of their belief. Private enterprise in general was discouraged, and so the theatersof the country were, for the most part, brought under state control. One of the greatest ofmodern playwrights, Anton Chekhov, wrote exclusively for the Moscow ArtTheater in the late 18 s and early 19 s, and he is one of the majorfigures of the emerging realist tradition. However, the theater that was now in the hands of illiterate peasantswas not the same theater that had previously been in the hands of Chekhovand Stanislavsky. All art ismeant to communicate political truth, and the drama is particularly usefulin that Communist ideals can be expressed to the masses, not necessarilythe literate. Didactic events also occur on a smaller scale. Communism was sustained in thetheater not merely as an ideal but also as content. Regional theaters that had previously kept alive the folktraditions and artistic goals of China were suddenly dominated by Communistideals. Many peasants responded positively to the new direction, assertingthat the traditional Chinese opera, which tells the stories of emperors,kings, generals, and ministers, meant little to them. This was an easily manipulated form andserved the purposes of the government well. The philosophy failed, and so the propagandasupporting it has been exposed. Wars may be fought with a minimum of dissent, and wealth may bedistributed according to the commonly accepted goals of the state. Constantine Tung andColin MacKerras. "Theater Activities in Post-Cultural Revolution China."Drama in the People's Republic of China. The Theatre in Soviet Russia. Factories and shops had their own individual theatercompanies, as did divisions of the Soviet army. Furthermore, not all of the responses to the new theater wereattacks. The criticism wasparticularly directed to the "Gang of Four," who were thought to be usingrevolutionary drama as a mode by which they might seize increased personalpower. All drama, in Mao's eyes, represents a political viewpoint. Capitalism necessitated a story that wouldjustify it. 1965 was a crucial point in Chinese history, for it was then that theCultural Revolution occurred. Communist content was all that mattered. Both governments used dramaand sport as means by which they could maintain a Communist state. This decision to emphasize modern drama over classical reached evengreater heights during the Cultural Revolution. Classic theater enjoyed abrief renaissance after the war; however, the productions were chosen onthe basis of their ability to communicate Communist ideals andphilosophies. Political systems have a greater probability of lasting if they aresustained peacefully, and this is best accomplished if the system has anintellectually persuasive ideology. Theater was suddenly an ideological tool.Lenin himself took an especially careful interest in the revolutionarydrama: "There are no forms of art or science which should not be linked tothe great ideas of Communism or the infinitely variegated work of creatinga Communist economy. Pretense to dramaticexcellence was dropped. Chinesetheater had a tradition that extended back for centuries, enduring in arelatively unchanged form for years. Actors who pledged allegianceto the classical forms, however, were met with approbation, particularlyfrom the government and media. As these plays were created out offear, they have the taint of artificiality. Inshort, theater became less a work of the imagination and more a work ofphilosophy. In other words, for a political system to operate effectively, itmust have the cooperation of those governed by it. Second, the use of force is limitingin its ability to spread the system abroad. As for the response of the people themselves to the encroachingpropagandistic theater, the bulk of the attacks from the common citizenassert that the classical tradition was being ruined, that the grandtradition of Chinese theater was being cast away for the sake of politicalexpediency, and that the Revolutionary theater was not sufficientlyattractive enough to win a large following. NationalSocialism was such a system. Theory and writing which stemmedfrom this bold statement of purpose were largely concerned with attacking"reactionary" drama and repudiating those who supported it. The destruction of thearistocracy meant that theater became accessible to all, not merely thosewith enough money or connections to attend. The inherentbeliefs and assumptions of a system must be put into popular form to bespread effectively. Communism in itstheoretical form takes the appearance of a magnetic philosophy. Like the Bolsheviks before them, the Chinese government began tooffer prizes and rewards to writers who could demonstrate effectively howChinese drama might best be reformed. Communism is in an historical ebb at this point, but, at its peakduring in the Cold War years, it claimed the allegiance of two of thelargest countries in the world: the People's Republic of China, and theUnion of Soviet Socialist Republics. A philosophythat carries within it an inherent respect for the individual and thedignity of humanity may be thought of as a magnetic philosophy. Entertainment, so theargument went, gave "relaxation and pleasure, [and] unless such dramas wereprimarily educative for revolutionary ends, they would tend to favor areturn to pre-liberation ways of thinking" (MacKerras 171). Didacticism took utter precedence over aestheticism. The masseswould be less inclined to listen to speeches made by incompetentperformers. Content was soon to be altered aswell. Cooperation and singularity of visionprevent dissent and give increased strength to state-approved goals. The primary theory was whittled down to what wascalled "The Basic Task." In short, the basic task was to create socialistart. The editing of these texts tells much about the government's beliefthat drama has power to influence philosophy. This situation was not helped by the fact that the Soviets emerged onthe winning side of the war. Philosophiesthat at least pretend to respect the dignity of the individual meet withless opposition, both internally and externally. Theater as Propaganda Tool In order to be effective, a country's political system must bestable. Ed. The function of the writer was notto create plays of dramatic import, but to create stories that glorifiedthe Communist triumph and reinforced the notion of Communist destiny. Whether this is true or not, the mythologyemerged from the philosophy. Churches, publishing houses, andprivate economic exchanges were all systematically attacked. Actors and actresses have beentrained in a uniquely Chinese style since the early part of the seventhcentury. In this sense, it was closer toopera than standard drama. Asidefrom the fact that the theater changed in form, which said much about theusefulness of the theater to the Communist state, it changed in content aswell, serving as a political virus, by which other aspects of Soviet lifewere affected. In the area of formand content, it was a great success. Work that did not do so was judgedas reactionary, Anti-Marxist, and a threat to governmental order. Therefore, the change was couched in terms that seemed to make thenew direction inevitable. Thegovernment commissioned plays from writers, and the writers were rewardedwith prizes depending upon how effectively they articulated soviet ideals. The use of theater as propaganda continued throughout World War II,during which the Soviet citizenry was subjected to dramas such as Daleko otStalingrada, which tells the story of a clash between experimentalists andconservatives in an aircraft engine factory. Also, fear and terror tactics betray a state's goals. A correlation may be drawn between the extent and ferocity of thepropaganda and the internal consistency of the philosophy. The gradual acceptance of drama as a method of disseminatingpropaganda meant that theater was suddenly in the hands of everyone. As it cannot win adherentsbased on its appeal, it must forcibly convert people. The ascendancy to power of Mao Tse-tung in 1949 changed the theaterin the same way that the Bolshevik revolution changed the theater ofRussia. The enormous goal of the culturalupheaval was to create a completely original proletarian culture, whichmeant that the foundations of Chinese theater had to be forsaken entirely.New models had to be developed: not mere artistic models, but models for aradically new social organization. Private theater companies were utterly wipedout, and the task of establishing an exclusively modern theater for theproletariat was begun in deadly earnest. The original hopes of thetheater community, that the revolution would enable them to live undergreater economic equality, were swiftly being replaced by an awareness thatwhatever equality they received would be purchased at the price of becominga propaganda vehicle. An increase in propaganda marks the transition of ideals intoaggrandizement. Varioustexts of Mao were cited, in which he advocated artistic expression as longas it did not interfere with political or social goals. "Prescriptive Dramatic Theory of the Cultural Revolution."Drama in the People's Republic of China. Therepudiation took the form of attacks against the loss of freedom. The government [launched] amajor campaign to extract acting secrets form old performers.Promising actors, both young and middle-aged, are gathered from allcorners of the nation in central locales to learn as much as theycan from these old masters (Yang 178). Americans have animplicit belief that hard work, luck, and virtue combine to make forinevitable material success. The Cultural-Political Traditions and Developmentsof Soviet Cinema, 1917-1972. As late as 1968, Leonid Brezhnev reasserted the Communist Party'sofficial policy on the construction of art: "The Party and the people wantonly one thing: that works of art should reflect the truth of life, showingthe greatness of the Soviet people's feats of heroism, educating all men ina spirit of lofty Communist ideals, and helping them to realize theseideals" (Brezhnev, as cited in Cohen 2). The content of the plays did much to change public opinion. New drama had to be a superior mix ofform and content: This is a scene of thorough revolution destroying theliterature and art of the exploiting classes and establishingthe literature and art of the proletariat for the first time inhistory. Re-educating the masses was the only goal of drama. The goals of the state no longer had to be couchedin artistically acceptable terms. Documents from theyear 2 BC. The newformats led to greater freedom of propagandistic expression. Another development that came out of the "Basic Task" philosophy wasthe growth of expressly anti-capitalist plays. Theater became even more restricted, and the partyline was relentlessly pushed through artistic means to the citizens of thestate for the purpose of manipulation and control, not for the traditionaltheatrical purposes of personal growth, aesthetic appreciation, or theenactment of community ritual. Resistance to the theory came right away, even as the CulturalRevolution was being inaugurated, but such opposition was overwhelmed bythe force and speed by which the Communist philosophies were embraced. Sometheater companies remained semi-private, with theater managers continuingto draw significant salaries, but the Cultural Revolution changed thisstate of affairs, and, by 1965, privately run companies disappearedaltogether. Such wasthe case in the former East Germany. Communism in itspractical aspect, as practiced by the Bolsheviks, is just such aphilosophy. The civilwar against the theater was undertaken judiciously, however, as theinstigators of the state recognized that theater professionals were neededfor their practical skills. The idealof total economic equality is attractive, particularly to exploitedlaborers. A Shanghai newspaper in 1965 bemoaned thefact that "only the minority [of actors] have a proletarian view . Russia has a long, esteemed theater tradition. Such control may be achieved bytwo methods. Initially, the theater professionals anticipated a benefit from therevolution, namely that their material situations would improve, thatunpaid wages would be taken care of, and that the ideological fervor thatcaused revolution in the country would cause a revolution in the dramaticarts as well. Amherst: UMassachusetts P, 1975.Yang, Daniel. One method is control from without. Once the citizenryreaches a critical mass of unhappiness with the system and achieves thephysical capacity to resist it, the political system must fall. The process of changing over from classic to modern theaternecessitated a dramatic theory that justified and explained the change inartistic terms. One form of drama that the Communists put to immediate and effectiveuse was the historical drama. A country cannot reach forciblybeyond its borders, philosophically speaking, unless it is economicallyprepared to be at war with each nation with a different system. Albany: S U New York P, 1987. These plays made no pretense toartistic triumph but served only to alert the audience to a specificideological battle and what the state's position was on it. Theleaders have much less to fear from a populace that enthusiastically adoptsthe leaders' philosophical paradigm. The state's goals are enumerated, and thecitizens either support them or face the loss of property, health, or life.This method manifests itself in the presence of death squads, military-style police forces, internal surveillance, and harsh prisons. While traditionalmethods of performance were kept alive, actors and producers weredeveloping formats that could more easily serve the goals and objectives ofthe new theater. If apolitical philosophy is adopted by an overwhelming majority of thosegoverned, however, the goals and the objectives of the rulers can be meteasily. Philosophy is an esotericdiscipline, however, and does not reach the common citizen. Therefore, sustained political systems have numerousexamples of didactic spectacle: popular events, rallies, and massdemonstrations. Chinese theater has a long tradition, as well. The other way that public opinion may be controlled is from within,in that the citizens themselves enforce the state's goals. To be a goodCommunist meant to show support publicly for Communist principles. Dissent is always apossibility if a citizen is given a choice between two opposing beliefsystems. The revolutionaries suddenly felt it was appropriate notonly to give the citizens new freedom, but to direct the theaters to showwhat this new freedom meant. These dramasdealt with topics such as the reform of marriage laws, a reform favored bythe Communist party. Socialist heroes werefrequently trod upon by cruel capitalist exploiters. As well, an entrenched "starsystem" was replaced with an increased emphasis on ensemble work, andactors were looked upon as "free artists and citizens," no longer"subservient to rank, titles, influence, or position" (1 1) The Bolsheviks had their own plans for the theater, however, and thebenefits that were briefly enjoyed by theater professionals were nowcombined with a new and formidable goal: "a new theater connected with therebuilding of the state and society upon the principles of socialism"(Gorchakov 1 9). Aesthetics were minimized to the point of irrelevance.Indoctrination became the primary goal. [All non-scholarly education of the masses, includingtheater] must touch Communist propaganda" (Lenin, as cited in Gorchakov114). Free opinion andexpression were to be cast out of the theaters, and all theater work was toexclusively glorify the Communist state. In both of these countries, the modernera was characterized by a willingness of the leaders of these twocountries to use both violence and persuasion to keep power in their hands.This paper addresses the peaceful means by which Communism was spread,particularly in the areas of drama and sport. WORKS CITEDCohen, Louis Harris. Historical plays, inaddition to reporting history, serve to create history as well. refer to a theater tradition, demonstrating that the Chineseemperors of the time enjoyed drama for both education and entertainment.Furthermore, the theater served roughly the same purpose as Greek theater:as a part of the religious traditions. The stories ofpeasants like themselves gave them encouragement to proceed in thedirection that the government was moving (MacKerras 177). The artistic accomplishments in Communist drama are negligible, asCommunist plays were never meant to be artistic successes. Ed. Producers who presented classical dramas werecommitting great crimes. On a practical dramatic level, revolutionary plays were hampered byan inability to concretize ideological goals. Albany: S U New York P, 1987.MacKerras, Colin. There is in fact nosuch thing as art for art's sake, art that stands above classes, orart that is detached from or independent of politics...Proletarianliterature and art are part of the whole proletarian revolutionary cause; they are, as Lenin said, cogs and wheels in the wholerevolutionary machine. Neighbor attackedneighbor, so that the state could keep its hands clean. Plays that exposed the excesses of the Czars were applauded,and altering historical record for the sake of lauding the current regimeeventually became expedient for playwrights. A countrydivided against itself, unstable in its internal goals or objectives, ishampered by indecision. Among the numerous benefits that stability offers, it protects thecountry from outside invasion by presenting to the outside world an imageof strength. . Theindividuals know that they are being manipulated. Russian theater, in general, was blossoming. By this method of opinion-shaping, the citizenry and its beliefs are controlled by force,intimidation, and threats. Plays were bothimplicitly and explicitly Communist. The Bolsheviks have wailedfor years about "national quality," "art for the masses," and "the theater for socialist society." This is all the crudestand falsest kind of demagogy (Gorchakov 4 7). New York: Columbia U P,1957.Judd, Ellen. These courses of action showed the theatergoer how to behave and atthe same time demonstrated how the government believed people ought tobehave. For more than 2 years, Chinese theater has grown, building onits early traditions. A country is less likely to invade another when the othercountry can demonstrate a consistent policy and back up the consistentpolicy with a populace in favor of it. Plays encouraged the purging of intellectualism, theproletarianization of colleges, the sublimation of personal ideals to theneeds of the state, and the exaltation of Communism as the source of wisdomand heroism (3 6). In the case of a policestate, the individual may appear cooperative and still retain resentmentand anger against the state. The creation of myth is an essential aspect in the constructionof a people's mass consciousness. This method ofshaping public opinion is attractive, rather than repellent, because itseeks to change the entire philosophic outlook of the individual citizenrather than change the citizen's behavior through fear and intimidation.Because modern countries are economically dependent upon one another andbecause a country's visible use of force on its own citizens threatens theits economic standing in the world, mastering public opinion throughpeaceful and subtle means is more expedient and effective for a country. It drawsthings in, based on the persuasiveness of its ideas. Theater could onlybe presented in ways that would make sense to the average, i.e. Constantine Tung andColin MacKerras. Next, for urban dwellers who found the peasant historical dramas tobe too rudimentary or artistically suspect, a committee was formed for thepurpose of developing modern, i.e. Opposition to theuse of theater for specifically, and exclusively, Communistic purposes camefrom many sides, notably from professional actors who saw the transitionfrom classic to modern drama to be nothing more than a passing fad. First, if apolitical system is being maintained through force alone, it can only standas long as the capacity to thwart the citizenry lasts. This method usesthe carrot, rather than the stick, to motivate people to cooperate withstate-sanctioned goals and objectives by appealing to reason, emotion,patriotism, religious fervor, and aesthetic appreciation. The central character has given up all pretenses ofindividuality, personal desire, or autonomy. Theconclusion of George Orwell's 1984 depicts the precise goal of alloppressive states. The perpetuation of the Nazi system had to beundertaken through violent means, and, once the desire to conquer lost thephysical capacity to withstand opposition, it fell. It was not meant to be performedfor the dead, and it must suit the needs of the living. Proletarian role models such as farmers,workers, and soldiers, were essential if the proletarians were to be wonfor Communism: We must work hard to create worker/peasant/soldiercharacters-that is the basic task of socialist literatureand art. The Chinese Communists were makinggradual steps towards the elimination of all traditional theater, a stepthat was taken in 1963. The goals of a political system are best achieved through persuasionrather than force. The defeat of Germany merely went to provethat Communist ideology was right and deservedly triumphant. .Quite a number are still burdened in their brains with confusedindividualistic notions which prevent them from serving the workers,peasants, soldiers, and socialism wholeheartedly" (MacKerras 177). The press began to advocate exclusively socialistart, and emphasis was placed entirely on modern theater with Communisticthemes: Because of historical and other aspects, olddramas...occupied the main position on the stage of the first period.But this is not appropriate for a socialist economic base.The economic base stubbornly serves the function of determiningthe laws of the superstructure. Western techniques, such as narrativedialogue and Western musical instruments, were adapted to suit Communistpurposes. revolutionary, dramas. Reactionary phrases wereedited out, heroic characters were never shown in submissive positions,religious sentiments were rephrased to give the indication of a more"progressive" outlook, and plots were altered to show the clergy in a badlight. Such plays had titles like The Plots of theCounterrevolution, The Fight Against Typhus, The Toiler's Army, and TheWork of the Committees of the Poor. By 1957, freedom to produce classical drama was eventually curtailedto the point that intellectual and artistic freedom was almost totallyrestricted. How to conquer the old Beijing opera and its influence onpeople's minds, how to make images of workers, peasants, andsoldiers firmly occupy the stage-the solution of this series ofproblems has no precedent which can be followed (Chu Lan, as citedin Judd 95). One of the inevitable results of a move towards exclusivelyproagandistic theater is a rather predictable opposition. Anyindividual who could communicate Soviet ideals became as valid a performeras a trained actor. It has turned the stageinto a weapon for Party falsehood toward tyrannical politicalends-just like the entire Soviet press. Manipulation is best accomplished if the one being manipulated isunaware of the fact. The inevitable result ofsuch actions was plays based on little more than party slogans. Chinese drama until 1949, while represented bynumerous schools of training and theory, had a unified style. Propaganda is best presented by professionals.Artisans can make arguments more persuasively than amateurs. The vehemence with which theater was attacked says muchabout practical Communism, as the freedom to perform anti-democratic playsin America says much about the health of democracy. Elaboration on this foundation came early and often, but this was thepoint from which there was no deviation. There isno such thing as an artwork uncorrupted by economic concerns or classconcerns. The exclusive use of Soviet sloganeering and jargon served totransform the theater in Russia from a mode of artistic expression to avehicle of state power and influence. Historicaldramas were produced but rewritten so that they served Communist aims andideals. The whole of Chinese philosophy is dominated by the thought of Mao,and in his comments on the use of the theater, one can find attitudesremarkably similar to those of Stalin and the Bolsheviks: All culture, all literature and art belong to definiteclass and are geared to definite political lines. The decision of the governmental hierarchy was to make the peasantsthe heroes of the new stage. In theseinstances, it became apparent that the framework and content for theatercould not be imposed effectively from outside. Form was not all that was altered. Chekhov contributed enormouslyto world drama in his depiction of the gradual disintegration of theRussian ruling classes. These policies and tactics eventually reduced the once great Russiantheater to a position of utter artistic bankruptcy. The past, then, wasmere material, and historical plays used the material more effectively thanmost formats in the process of educating the masses. The Soviet bureaucracy showed a uniquetenacity in yoking all elements together for the service of their cause.The theater fell into its role as dramatizer of the working class strugglewith, if not ease, at least compliance. The successes, then, of theseattempts, can only be viewed as the temporal successes of malevolentleaders. Thegovernment backed up its threats with a civil war in the theater, aimed at"making every theater our own and have it serve the proletarian revolution"(263). If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.